Interactive Lesson - The Fermi Paradox

1. The Fermi paradox was named after Italian physicist, Enrico Fermi.

But what is a "paradox"?

a) a scientific theory

b) a contradiction

c) an exploding star

2. The original version of the Fermi paradox can be reduced to one sentence:

              "Where is everybody?"

Who do you think he was talking about?


3. Watch the first 35 seconds of the video and decide whether your answer was correct.

4. Before watching the rest of the video, discuss the following questions and try to justify your opinions.

i) Do you believe that there is other intelligent life in the universe?

ii) Do you think that aliens have ever visited planet Earth?

5. Now read the following questions and then try to answer them as you watch the video.

i) Can we search the whole universe for signs of life or are we limited to looking at a small part of it?

ii) Why was the early Milky Way not a good place for life?

iii) What type of civilization do we have here on Earth?

iv) How long would it take to colonize the whole galaxy?

v) What could stop a civilization from advancing?

6. Do you still agree with the opinions you expressed in part 4? Why / why not?


7. Imagine you were asked to give a short lecture on The Fermi Paradox.

i) Watch the video again and take notes.

ii) Organise your notes into a maximum of 10 important points.

iii) Now, find someone who you think would be interested in this kind of thing and explain it to them. 

100 Mistakes #26 - Must or Should?

On your flight confirmation from Bryanair, it says:

Not your plane

"You must arrive 30 minutes before the flight."

Why, who says?

The airline. This is the airline's point of view.

If you arrive late, they won't let you on the plane. The airline's opinion is pretty important in this context.

- - - - -

must is a modal verb. But what is a modal verb?

It's a verb that presents points of view.
It is not the language of fact. It is the language of opinion.

Let's look at two modal verbs: must and should

You must arrive an hour before the flight - there is no other option
You should arrive an hour before the flight - this is what I believe is right

The castle must be right behind that hill - there is no other possibility (we don't need to look)
The castle should be right behind that hill - this is what I believe is right (but we need to look)

     must = there is no other option/possibility
     should = I believe that this is right (but there are other options/possibilities)

should is a softer, more flexible version of must.
must is a stricter, exaggerated version of should.
should stresses that this is only a belief. It opens up alternative options.

Many grammar books say that must is obligation or deduction, and should is recommendation or supposition - which is true - but it doesn't show the link between the ideas; it doesn't show what must and should really are in the minds of English speakers.

- - - - -

Grammar should unite ideas not divide them!
I believe that it is right that grammar unites ideas.

She must be here in a few minutes.
There is no possibility that she won't be here.

She should be here in a few minutes.
I believe that she will be here in a few minutes.

You mustn't talk like that.
Talking like that is not an option.

You shouldn't talk like that.
I believe it is right that you don't talk like that.

- - - - -

We can also use modal verbs to talk about the past.

     must have = There was no other option/possibility. I believe it happened.
     should have = this is what I now believe was right but it didn't happen.

I saw him on the platform. He must have seen me.
I should have taken the bus.
I saw him on the platform. There is no possibility that he didn't see me.
I now believe it was right to take the bus (but I didn't)

- - - - - 

If someone says that you must do something, and you do something different, you are showing that in reality, there was another option.

For example:

Monday
John says: You must be at the bus station at 8am tomorrow.
There is no other option, from John's point of view.

Tuesday
I arrived at 8:30am. In reality, there was another option.
I should have arrived at 8am. I believe it was right to arrive at 8am.

Not: I must have arrived at 8am.)
must have shows that you believe that you arrived at 8am.
But this is not true. You know you arrived at 8:30am.

- - - - -

Now you try...


Wearing a uniform is the only option.
You ______ wear a uniform.

I think that it's right that you can take food in your hand luggage.
You ______ be able to take food in your hand luggage.

I think that it's right that you talk to your mum at least once a week.
You ______ talk to your mum at least once a week.

Calling my mum tonight is the only option.
I ______ call my mum tonight.

Do you think it's right to go to the concert tonight?
Do you think I ______ go to the concert tonight?

I think that seeing the new Star Wars film is the only option!
You ______ see the new Star Wars film!

I now think that hitting John was the right thing to do but I didn't hit him.
I ______  ______  hit John.

I believe that I hit John.
I ______ ______ hit John.

I now think that hitting John was not the right thing to do but I hit him.
I ______ ______ hit John. Clue: you will need to use a negative!

- - - - - 

Answers in the comments!

100 Mistakes #25 - Look, Watch and See

When you look, you direct your eyes in one direction or another.

You can look at a painting.
You can look under a bed.
You can look behind the sofa.
You can look at an elaborately painted door (go on!)




When you watch, you focus your eyes on things that are changing, or things that you think are going to change.

You can watch a football match.
You can watch the TV.
You can watch the door (if you're expecting it to open.)

You see things that are in front of your eyes.

If you look somewhere, you will see whatever is there (unless it's too dark.)
If you watch something, you will see the developments that take place while you are watching.

So we use watch or look to talk about what a person is doing intentionally.
We use see to talk about what happens in front of their eyes.

- - - - -

Let's look at some sentences:

Did you see Game of Thrones / the match last night?
Did you watch Game of Thrones / the match last night?

These questions are asking the same thing: if you watched it, then inevitably, you saw it.

An English speaker might sometimes say something like:

I saw it, but I wasn't really watching.

This means that Game of Thrones / the match was on the TV but that the speaker was not really paying attention.

- - - - -

Now you have a go.

Choose between see, look at, and watch. Make sure you choose the correct form of the verb!
Sometimes, more than one answer is correct.

1. I ________ the Star Wars prequels and thought they were rubbish.

2. Have you ________ train times to London?

3. Did you remember to ________ lamps?

4. ________ that guy in the pink hat!

5. Did you ________ elephants in India?

6. ________ very carefully. It's very quick!

7. I haven't ________ him in ages.

8. I've never ________ Game of Thrones and have no intention of doing so!

9. Yes, I ________ the Mona Lisa but there were too many people to ________ it properly.


You can find the answers in the comments!

Interactive Lesson - Drones

Task 1 - Speaking

Discuss these questions with a partner:

What is a drone, and what are they used for?
Do you think the skies will soon be full of them?


Task 2 - Reading 

Below, you will find four BBC news articles involving drones.

Work individually.
Read one of them and make notes under these headings:

• Summary of story (maximum 3 sentences)
• Advantages of using drones
• Problems arising from using drones
• If I was Prime Minister, I would pass legislation (make a law) which said...

Here are the links to the news articles:

Bears       Knock Out       Airspace       Sea Gulls


Task 3 - Vocabulary Check

After making your notes, go back and underline any difficult words or phrases in the article (maximum 4 examples).

Discuss these with a partner without showing them your notes.

Modify your notes if you need to.


Task 4 - Presenting 

Use your notes to explain your news stories to your group.

While you listen, make notes under the same four headings: summary, advantages, problems, if I was prime minister...



Task 5 - Discussion and Writing

With a partner, look at all the different laws that the whole group came up with.

Agree and write down one law that covers all the situations.

Include penalties for breaking the law.



Task 6 - Testing Your Law

Is this man breaking the law? Should he be punished?
What do you think of his "invention"?

Task 7 - Internet Research (homework)

Find out what you can about Zano drones.

• What is the concept of Zano drones? What are they designed to do?
• Zano is a modern company, funded by Kickstarter. What is Kickstarter?
• What problems has the company experienced?
• Do you think that Zano drones will be a success?

100 Mistakes #24 - The order of questions

Let's look at a question:

What eats chickens?

This is a perfectly good question but is the answer foxes or corn?

The position of the words "eat" and "chickens" is important here.

If part of a sentence says:
"... chickens eat...", I know that chickens eat something. These chickens are doing something. So the chickens are the subject of the verb.

If part of a sentence says:
"...eat chickens...", I know that something eats chickens. So these chickens are the object of the verb. The chickens are now a type of food.

You can't put the subject after the main verb because I will think it's the object!

So... what eats chickens?

Foxes.
Foxes eat chickens.
(Subjects eat objects.)

This question was a "tell-me-the-subject" question.

- - - - -

But what question should I ask to get the answer corn?
What if I want you to tell me the object?

Well, we know that the order has to be "... chickens eat..." because chickens eat corn.

So we could try... What chickens eat?

But... English is a language of auxiliaries.

We need the auxiliary verb, do:

What do chickens eat?

Corn.
Chickens eat corn.
(Subjects eat objects.)

This question was a "tell-me-the-object" question.

- - - - -

Fantastic. So how do I know when I need to use an auxiliary?

As a general rule, in most tenses, you need an auxiliary.
But in the present simple and simple past, we can sometimes drop (delete) the auxiliary.

Let's break it down into positive and negative statements, and a series of questions:

(+) Chickens eat corn.
(-) Chickens don't eat corn.
(?) Yes or No: Do chickens eat corn?
(?) tell-me-the-object: What do chickens eat?
(?) tell-me-the-subject: What eats corn?

So, in the PRESENT SIMPLE:

• you don't need the auxiliary 'do' in the positive statement and "tell-me-the-subject" questions.
• for the other forms (negative, yes/no questions, "tell-me-the-object" questions and other questions: why, how, where...), you need the auxiliary 'do'.

The SIMPLE PAST is very similar:

• you don't need the auxiliary 'did' in the positive statement and "tell-me-the-subject" questions.
• for all other forms (negative, yes/no questions, "tell-me-the-object" questions, and other questions: why, how, where...), you need the auxiliary 'did'.

(+) The chickens ate the corn.
(-) The chickens didn't eat the corn.
(?) Yes or No: Did the chickens eat the corn?
(?) tell-me-the-object: What did the chickens eat?
(?) tell-me-the-subject: What ate the corn?


But the present simple and simple past are special.
Other tenses need auxiliaries in every form.

Here's the PRESENT CONTINUOUS:

• you need the auxiliary 'be' in every form.

(+) The chickens are eating the corn.
(-) The chickens aren't eating the corn.
(?) Yes or No: Are the chickens eating the corn?
(?) tell-me-the-object: What are the chickens eating?
(?) tell-me-the-subject: What is eating the corn?

- - - - -

So here are a few questions that I've heard from my students. They are not English sentences because there are mistakes in the structure. But where did my students go wrong?


1. What means "overwhelming"?

2. Where the concert takes place?

3. You like Barça?

4. When started the lesson?

5. What we do today?

6. When you came to Spain?

7. You go to England in August? 

100 Mistakes #23 - This is the news

The word news is an uncountable noun.

That means that you cannot have one, two, three, four, seventeen, ninety-three or two-hundred-and-sixty-eight "news".

I saw a new about it this morning.

No you didn't, you saw a report or you read an article.

new is an adjective but it is not a noun

news is a noun but it is not plural

You can watch or read the news - the latest information about local or world events - but you can't watch a new or read a new.

So why the hell does it have an 's'?

Well, the 's' is there because it has an 's' in French. (It's probably easiest to blame the French for everything.)

Also, news is usually about more than one thing: "the news" is made up of individual news stories, news items or news reports.

We often use "the news" to refer to the news programme itself, so it's quite natural to say: yes, I saw it on the news.

Now watch Peter O'Hanraha-hanrahan make a complete mess of the news.
(This bit is for advanced students really.)

Peter, you've lost the news!

100 Mistakes #22 - Journey, Trip and Travel

Jeff has just arrived in London.

Me: How was the journey, Jeff?
Jeff: Oh, not too bad. There was a bit of traffic coming into London but apart from that...

Jeff has just been on holiday.

Me: How was your trip, Jeff?
Jeff: Amazing! The temples in Cambodia blew my mind.

Jeff is in an English class.

Me: So Jeff, what do you do in your free time?
Jeff: Well, I enjoy reading, going cycling in the mountains, music - mainly rock - and travel.

- - - - -

In the above examples, journey, trip and travel are all nouns.

journey = from A to B (by train, plane, bus, car etc.)

trip = the journey + everything you did at your destination

travel = the field of interest; the category (in a bookshop, for example)

We don't say the travel or a travel because travel is a category and categories do not have an article: music, rock, travel, psychology, linguistics...

- - - - -

travel is also a verb, so Jeff could say:

I don't like travelling by bus; it makes me feel sick.

trip is a verb too but it means experiencing the effects of psychedelic drugs:

Jeff: Wow, look at the lights. They're like tubes. It's beautiful.
Me: You're tripping, Jeff.

Now over to you:

Which of these is journey, trip, or travel?
(You may have to change the form if it's a verb.)


After the disastrous ________ last summer, _________ is the last thing on my mind.

I wasn't really expecting the _________ to take this long. I thought we'd be there by seven.

I've ________ to over 30 different countries.

I never thought we'd actually get to ride an elephant. This is the best _________ I've ever been on.

I don't like to take too much with me when I _________ .

100 Mistakes #21 - Doubts

Let's imagine a nightmare situation...

Your boss holds a meeting to explain her plans for next year. There's something you don't understand, so you say: "I have a doubt."

Your boss looks very angry and says "Well, if you have a better idea, let's hear it!"

Oh dear. Something went wrong there. That's not what you meant. You were trying to say that you didn't fully understand.

Let's imagine a problem-free situation...

Your boss holds a meeting to explain her plans for next year. There's something you don't understand, so you say: "I'm not sure I follow you."

Your boss looks apologetic and says "Sorry, I know there are a lot of changes. Which part didn't you understand?"

That's better. That's what we wanted.

The problem is the word "doubt" and English politeness.

In English, if you say "I have some doubts", you think that the proposal is not very good. You have doubts about the plan, not about your own understanding. In fact, you probably hate the plan, but you're just being polite.

(When there's a big problem, English people will tell you that there's a small problem. We don't want to hurt your feelings.)

If you doubt your understanding, there are lots of phrases you can use. For example:

• I'm not sure I follow you.  √
• I have a question.  √
• Could you just explain the last part?  √
• Could you go over the first part again?  √
• I didn't really get the bit about...  √

The only people who use the phrase "I have a doubt" are Spanish speakers!

100 Mistakes #20 - Safety and Security

It can sometimes look like "safety" and "security" are the same thing.

Have you thought about data security? Is your data safe?

But sometimes they seem to be something different.

The new Yakuski 4x4 is extremely safe but not particularly secure.

So how does it work?

In short, safety is about avoiding harm or risk, while security is about preventing unwanted change or theft (things being stolen).

This car is not safe = you could get hurt

This car is not secure = someone could break in and steal your things

Safety glass should be used in glass doors = it won't cause injury if it breaks

Security glass should be used in shop windows  = to prevent anyone from breaking in

The shelf doesn't look secure = it looks like it might fall down

The shelf doesn't look safe = it might hurt someone

The safe option = the option without risk
We need some kind of security = a guarantee that if things go wrong, the changes won't affect us

If something happens to you, will your family be secure? = if you are killed, will Timmy still be able to go to private school? = buy insurance, NOW!

(Note that an insurance policy makes your family more secure but it doesn't necessarily make them safer. All the insurance in the world can't prevent an earthquake!)

- - - - -

Now it's your turn. In one of the sentences, both options are correct.

1. Road safety / security is taken very seriously in our town.
2. This ladder doesn't feel very safe / secure.
3. Car alarms may offer extra safety / security but will certainly annoy the neighbours.
4. New health and safety / security regulations have forced restaurant owners to clean up their act.
5. By the time I retire, my pension will be so low that it doesn't offer me much safety / security.

100 Mistakes #19 - Concentrate and Focus

I usually write these blog posts in a quiet café because I need to concentrate. If it's too noisy, I can't focus on what I'm writing. I lose my focus. I lose my concentration.

focus can be a noun or a verb

concentrate is a verb

concentration is a noun

In my classes, I often hear the expression, "I was concentrated". Unfortunately, this is not an English sentence.

Although a person can concentrate, they cannot "be concentrated." We use "concentrated" as an adjective to describe something that has been intensified.

Washing-up liquid is concentrated when its water content has been reduced.

A campaign can be concentrated when an organisation targets a particular area or audience.

But you cannot 'be concentrated' because no one has concentrated you!

Here are some examples:

New Bio concentrated washing-up liquid lasts longer and cleans better! √
The Labour party's campaign was short but extremely concentrated, targetting poorer communities. √
I have been concentrated on this problem all morning. X
I have been concentrating on this problem all morning. √

On the other hand, people can be focussed (and so can a political campaign.)

For example:

She was focussed on winning the tournament. √
The campaign was poorly focussed so voters stayed at home. √

But washing-up liquid cannot be focussed. That's why it's not very good at winning tennis tournaments or elections!


Have you been concentrating?

One of the following statements is incorrect. Which one?

Michael didn't go out because he was concentrating on his exams.
Michael didn't go out because he was focussing on his exams.

Michael didn't go out because he was concentrated on his exams.

Michael didn't go out because he was focussed on his exams.

100 Mistakes #18 - In The End, Eventually, At Last, Finally

If English is not your first language, you probably use "finally" more often than you should. It's not that we don't use it, we do! Just not as often as you do. Here's why...

in the end = how a situation is resolved or concluded; the important thing when all things are considered

eventually = after a long time

(not used with perfect tenses)

at last! = An exclamation showing relief or excitement after waiting a long time

(usually used with perfect or present tenses)

finally = after a series of incidents or attempts

In some situations, more than one is possible. In others, only one. It depends on whether you want to comment on the time taken, the number of attempts or the way the situation is concluded.

Situation 1: your journey to England was delayed by bad weather.

In the end, I arrived at my hotel.
(the conclusion of the story)

Eventually, I arrived at my hotel.
(after a long time)

At last, I've arrived at my hotel!
(it has taken a long time)
Finally, I arrived at my hotel.
(after a series of incidents: my train was delayed, my bus broke down, the taxi driver got lost, the road was flooded...)

Situation 2: Your brother was staying at your house for a week and you told him not to touch your expensive vase because it was very fragile. He was very careful not go near the vase all week.

In the end, the neighbour's dog knocked it over and it smashed into pieces.
(the conclusion of the story)

Eventually, the neighbour's dog knocked it over and it smashed into pieces.
At last, the neighbour's dog knocked it over and it smashed into pieces.
Finally, the neighbour's dog knocked it over and it smashed into pieces.

Situation 3: Barcelona beat Real Madrid 3-2.

In the end, Barcelona beat Real.
(the result of the match)

Eventually, Barcelona beat Real.
(it took a long time to beat Real, perhaps several seasons)

At last, Barcelona have beaten Real!
(it has taken a long time to beat Real, perhaps several seasons)

Finally, Barcelona have beaten Real!
(it has taken a lot of attempts to beat Real)

Note that "at the end" is a simple time expression. So I can say:

At the end of the 90 minutes, Ronaldo scored with a penalty to pull one back for Real. But in the end, it was Barcelona who went home with all three points.

100 Mistakes #17 - Politics, Politicians and Policies

If you're a Spanish speaker, it's easy to get mixed up when you're looking for the English words for la politica, las politicas or los politicos. So here's a quick reminder.

If you go to a bookshop, you will see signs showing different subject areas or fields of interest: literature, history, psychology, politics...

So politics is the world of political affairs: how society is controlled and directed.

This is a politician:

Note: the "-ician" ending is always a person.

Eg. mathematician, musician, physician, magician

His name is David Cameron.

His policies are:

1. Look important

2. Make Britain look important

3. Find ways for a few people to make a lot of money
4. Try to look like an average person by:
  i) sometimes drinking a beer
  ii) pretending to have eaten a Cornish Pasty

5. Stop poor people from spoiling the party

6. Simultaneously like and dislike the EU

7. Sell anything owned by the state

You don't want to see these guys without their masks on.

So now you can test yourself.

1. David Cameron is a...

a) politician
b) twit
c) robot

This was a trick question. All of the answers are true!

100 Mistakes #16 - Usually, used to, be used to

Click picture for creative people's daily routines
on infowetrust.com

Usually, used to and be used to are all related to routine.

Usually - Present routine

I usually go to the cinema at the end of the road.

The cinema at the end of the road is the one I go to most often.

Used to - Past routine

I used to do gymnastics.

I regularly did gymnastics in the past (implying that this is not my routine now.)

Be used to - Familiarity (the consequence of routine)

I am used to exploring foreign cities without a guide.

I am familiar with exploring foreign cities without a guide because I've done it plenty of times before.

Notice that used to is followed by the verb in its basic form (the infinitive) but be used to is followed by the -ing form. This helps us to be more certain of what people are saying. Of course, that also makes it a very important 'ing'!

I am used to use a PC so Macs confuse me. 

(Your listener won't know if you mean I used to or I am used to.)

I am used to using a PC so Macs confuse me. √

A common mistake is to think that 'use to' can be used to mean routine in the present... but it can't!

I use to go swimming with my brother-in-law
(Your listener will think you're saying 'used to', that it's a past routine, not a current one.)
I usually go swimming with my brother-in-law. √

Logically, the negative of used to is didn't use to (on the grounds that the negative of 'used' is 'didn't use') but some people think it's didn't used to. In real life, it's not easy to tell the difference when people are speaking, and most native speakers have probably never thought about it.

I didn't use to like jazz but now I'm becoming a real fan. √


Get used to is used when something starts to feel normal.

I'm getting used to the new flat now that I've been living here for two weeks. √
I don't like the new rules but I suppose I'll get used to them. √

100 Mistakes #15 - Get

The verb 'get' can be confusing, because it seems to have lots of different meanings. If you translate it into your language, you may need several different words.

In English, it has a meaning similar to bring, find, receive, obtain, reach, take, become or understand, depending on the situation.

Here are some examples:

Oh, you've been shopping! What did you get?
Get is similar to bring, find or obtain

What are you getting for Christmas?
Get is similar to receive 

Could you tell me how I can get to the station?
Get to is similar to reach or go to
(Note: we do not use arrive in this context)

How did you get here?
Get is similar to reach or come to

I got the bus.
Get is similar to take

He got on the train at St Pancras, and got off at Luton Airport Parkway.
Get on is similar to board = enter (transport)
Get off is similar to leave = exit (transport) 

I'm getting old.
Get is similar to become = start to be

I don't get why you didn't say anything before!
Get is similar to understand

She's got three younger brothers.
Have got is similar to have

So how can one verb mean so many different things?

Well, we have to ask ourselves how different these meanings really are.

Is bring similar to take?
The difference between bring and take depends on whether you are coming or going.
Compare these sentences:

I'll bring my laptop (with me when I come)
I'll take my laptop (with me when I go)

Is receive similar to take?
When my neighbour goes away on holiday, she brings me her cat. I take her cat. I receive her cat.

Is reach similar to obtain or have?
When you reach the summit of a mountain, do you feel like you now have something that you didn't have before? Not convinced? What about reaching an agreement?

Is understand similar to receive?
When you understand something, have you received something? Do you now have something that you didn't have before?

Words usually mean more than one thing, and get is particularly flexible. It allows us to unite things that feel similar, without changing the verb.

Try to work out which verb 'get' is similar to in this conversation:

Boy: How did you get here?

Girl: I got the train.

Boy: Yes but I don't get how you got from the station to the city centre so quickly?
Girl: Oh, I got lucky. There was a bus there as soon as I got out of the station. I only managed to get on because there was a long queue.
Boy: So, did you get me anything from Paris?

Girl: Of course. I thought of you as soon as I got there.

Here! I got it in a little shop in the Latin quarter. I hope you haven't already got one.
Boy: Oh, thank you! No, I haven't got one like this; it's beautiful!

Girl: I tried to get one last time I was there but they hadn't got any.

So what do you think she got him?

Notes for Spanish speakers

If you're Spanish, think about the verbs "coger" and "tomar", and whether they also have different meanings in different contexts. Do they sometimes translate as "get"?

 - - - - -

Be careful with translating "llegar a" into English. Try to avoid the verb "arrive" and use "get to" instead. "Llegar a ser" translates as "become".

I arrived to Porto at about half past three.
I got to Porto at about half past three.

He arrived to be a monk at the age of 33.
He became a monk at the age of 33.

 - - - - -

In Spanish you use "tomar algo/una copa" in the context of going out for a drink. But in English we do not use "take something"! Here are some better ideas:

Go for a drink - I went for a couple of drinks after work.
Go out for a drink - Do you fancy going out for a drink this weekend?
Get a drink - Shall we get another drink?

- - - - -

Stuff About Sharks: when 'gh' = f

How do you say the 'gh' in English words?

Generally speaking, the best idea is to ignore the 'gh'. Don't say anything!

However, all of the words that end in 'gh' in this poem (about sharks), end in an f sound! Note also that 'gh' never sounds like th in English.

Stuff About Sharks

Sharks laugh a lot          lārf
They often cough           coff
They're tough enough    tuff      inuff  
And sometimes rough    ruff

While pigs scoff
Their food from a trough       troff
Sharks are more likely
To rip your arms off!

---- vocabulary ----
tough = strong; resistant
rough = not gentle; not mild; not smooth
scoff = eat like a pig
trough = food container for farmyard animals

Vowel Sounds Overview

This post gives a short overview of the vowel sounds in British English.  I use a system called SPELL to represent the individual sounds.


Short vowels

Three-letter words in English are very predictable.

The word “cat” contains three sounds: c, a, and t

“Red” is r, e, d

“Dog” is d, o, g

“Big” is b, i, g

And “bus” is b, u, s

It doesn't look like we need a special way to represent sound with funny symbols. We can just use the alphabet, can’t we?

Yes… and no.

The word “push”, for example, causes a problem. The vowel sound is a different (deeper) sound than the u in “bus”. If we want to show that they are different, we need some kind of symbol.

Let’s define u as the deeper sound.

So “push” is p, u, sh

That means that we have 6 short vowel sounds but only 5 letters.

Our short vowel sounds then are a, e, i, o, u, u

Click here for more on the short sounds


Long vowels

These are the vowel sounds that we hear when we say the alphabet.

A     cake      caek

E      teeth     teeth

I       kite        kiyt

O      boat      boet

U      tune      tyuun

In written English, we can write the same sound in different ways, using a combination of two or more letters. For example, the words ‘male’ and ‘mail’ are pronounced in exactly the same way.

The sound-symbols that I use for these long vowel sounds are a combination of two letters, but I always use the same two letters to represent each sound.

I will write them as: ae, ee, iy, oe, uu.

So the sound of both “male” and “mail” is mael.

Notice that the name of the letter of the alphabet, U, is actually pronounced yuu. It begins with the consonant sound, y.

The combination of ‘u’ and ‘e’ in “tune” also makes yuu:

      the word is made from the sounds: t, y, uu and n

However, the combination of ‘u’ and ‘e’ in “flute” makes uu:

      the word is made from the sounds: f, l, uu and t (there is no y sound)

There is no rule for this. Sometimes there’s a y; sometimes there isn’t.

Click here for more on the long sounds


Cowboy vowels

There are two ‘cowboy’ vowel sounds, which, in English, are written using a combination of letters. Here are some examples:

cow      cŏ
boy       boy

sound   sŏnd

coin      coyn

We use a special symbol, ŏ, to represent the vowel sound in “cow” and "sound" because the letter combinations 'ow' and 'ou' don’t always make that sound. For example, in the word  “town”, ‘ow’ makes the sound ŏ but in the word “show”, ‘ow’ makes the sound oe.

We use oy to represent the vowel sound in boy and coin.

Click here for more on the cowboy vowels


The R-vowels

There are three different vowel sounds that are often written using a combination of a vowel and the letter ‘r’. Here are some examples:

purple      pūrp~l
car           cār
door         dōr

In these words, the letter ‘r’ is part of the vowel sound. It is not pronounced as a consonant sound (in British English).

I will write these sounds ūr, ār and ōr.

Notice that the vowel sound ūr can be spelt in three different ways:

purple      pūrp~l
person     pūrs~n
girl           gūrl

The first vowel sound in the words “person”, “girl” and “purple” is exactly the same: ūr.

Click here for more on the R-vowels


The lazy vowel

Some vowels make a very weak, lazy sound. This happens when they are part of an unstressed syllable. Here are some examples:

alive        ~liyv
waiter      waet~
person     pūrs~n
pilot         piyl~t

I will write ~ for this sound. We don’t want it to look very much like a letter because it is so relaxed that it’s almost not there!

Click here for more on the lazy vowel


The Sliders

There are five more vowel sounds that native speakers of English may think of as individual sounds, although they are really combinations of the sounds I have already introduced. Here are some examples:

beer      bee~
fire        fiy~
cure       cyuu~
flour      flŏ~
chair      che~

For each of these sounds, we slide from one sound to another.

I will write them: ee~, iy~, uu~, ŏ~ and e~

Click here for more on the sliders


So those are the vowel sounds of English. If you’re not sure how they sound, go to the Individual Vowel Sounds posts in the Vowels Menu where you can listen to them one by one.

100 Mistakes #14 - The difference between 'lose' and 'miss'

A lot of my students confuse 'lose' with 'miss', which is no surprise because in Spanish they both translate as 'perder'. So...

You lose things that you no longer have: you had them before but now you don't.

I've lost my keys!
(I had them last night.)
When he lost his job he also lost most of his friends. (He had a job and friends, and now he has neither.)
You've lost your mind! (You used to be sane and now you are mad.)
I've lost touch with most of my old school-friends.(We used to be in touch.)

If you don't know where you are, you are lost.
If you get totally absorbed in something, you lose yourself.

When I couldn't find the path, I knew that I was lost.
I got lost on the way back to the campsite. ('get lost' = become lost)
He lost himself in the vivid colours of the painting.
"I was lost when I met you on the road to Larissa." (Leonard Cohen)
"For a minute there, I lost myself, I lost myself." (Thom Yorke, Radiohead)

You miss things that happen at a particular time, while you are in a different place.

I've missed my train. (The train was at the station, but I wasn't there.)
The sales job was one more missed opportunity. (The opportunity was there but I didn't take it.)
I missed the Rolling Stones concert because I was in France.
The summer in the UK is not very long. Blink and you'll miss it!
(The summer is so short that it could happen at the exact moment that you have your eyes closed.)

You also miss things that you wish were with you.

He missed her kisses.
Living in Australia is great but I miss my family.
My dog died a few months ago and I really miss him.

When something is missing, it is not in its usual place.

One of my plates is missing; there are usually six! (It may be in the living room, or perhaps someone broke it.)
Our cat has been missing for two days. I hope she's ok. 

Now over to you:

The traffic was so bad on the way to the airport that we __________ our plane!
I always get __________ when I'm trying to find that bar!
Why do I always __________ my phone!
Oh Polly, we're going to __________ you so much!
My goldfish is __________ ! What have you done with him?
I'm surprised they're not here by now. Do you think they're __________ ?
Relax and __________ yourself in the music.

100 Mistakes #13 - How do you say...? What do you call...?

English is pretty easy if you don't already speak another language!

Let's look at a mistake that a lot of Spanish speakers make in almost every conversation:

"Como se dice en inglés 'cosechadora'?"

"How is it called in English 'cosechadora'?"

Here we have some strange mix of English and Spanish; call it Spanglish, if you like. The big problem is that it's structured completely differently in English.

1) The "como se dice...?" part translates literally as "how does it say itself...?" But we don't use this kind of structure in English because 'cosechadoras' don't usually say anything apart from "whirra-whirra-whirra clankety-clanka-clanka-clanka..."

We want to know how you say it! (you = people in general)

"How do you say...?" √

2) The part of the sentence that starts with 'in' goes at the end. We don't like interrupting sentences with prepositions.

"How do you say in English 'cosechadora'?"

"How do you say 'cosechadora' in English?" √

Of course, you don't have to say it that way either. You can also say:

"What's 'cosechadora' in English?"  √

"What's the English for 'cosechadora'?"  √

"What do you call 'una cosechadora' in English?"  √

"What's 'una cosechadora' called in English?"  √

Notice that these are all "What...?" questions.

The words 'how' and 'call' do not go together unless you want to know how something is achieved or how something is possible.

"How do you call your mum when you're in Barcelona?"

"I usually use Skype."

So how do you say 'cosechadora' in English? I guess you'd better watch the video.

100 Mistakes #12 - Couples, partners and pairs

In English, when you have a boyfriend or girlfriend, the two of you together are a 'couple' and each person is a 'partner'.

(In Spanish, when you have a boyfriend or girlfriend, the two of you together are a 'pareja' and each person is also a 'pareja'. Crazy!)

But we don't use the word 'partner' in this sense very often. It is usually only used when we want to refer to someone without referring to their gender. So for example, an end-of-year company party invitation might say:

"Partners welcome!"

Or perhaps, when your friend Samantha (a girl) doesn't feel like it's the right moment to announce that she has a girlfriend, she might say:

"I went to see the new Woody Allen film with my partner."

Usually, we just say 'boyfriend' or 'girlfriend'. This doesn't tell us whether it's casual or serious, and it tells us nothing about the age of the people we're talking about.

'Partner' can also be used in the sense of co-owner in a business, or by organisations talking about working with other organisations:

"My business partner emptied the company bank account and flew to Buenos Aires."
"We look forward to working more closely with our partners in China."

'Couple' is also an informal way of saying 'two' or 'approximately two':

"I met up with Richie for a couple of beers."
"There were a couple of kids running around on the grass."

'Pair' is used to talk about objects that come in twos: a pair of shoes, a pair of socks, a pair of matching baseball caps. There are also a few individual objects that we conceptualize as pairs because they have two of something: a pair of glasses (2 lenses), a pair of scissors (2 blades), a pair of trousers (2 legs), a pair of pants (2 holes for legs).

'Pair' can also be used to mean two people, but not in the sense of 'boyfriend' and 'girlfriend':

"For this activity, I'd like you to work in pairs."
"You look like a right pair of idiots in those matching baseball caps!"

A pear, on the other hand, is a type of fruit, similar to an apple. The pronunciation of 'pear' and 'pair' is the same, which can be exploited with hilarious consequences:

As I went a-walking down Winchester Street,
I saw an old man with no shoes on his feet,
And as I had plenty of money to spare,
I went into a fruit shop and bought him a pear.

100 Mistakes #11 - Next, Last and Latest

The latest album by David Bowie is called "The Next Day".

We use "the latest" to talk about the newest thing: books, magazines, music, products etc. Notice that we say it is the latest, because we are thinking about what's new and what's happening now.

So, on the 15th July 2014, the latest iPhone is an iPhone 5, the latest issue of New Musical Express has the Libertines on the cover, and the latest news on the BBC is about Israeli bombing in Gaza.

So Andy, what's the latest album by David Bowie?

I told you, it's called "The Next Day".

And what's the latest album by the Beatles?

Erm, well there isn't a latest album by the Beatles because they split up in 1970.

Ok, then, what was the last album they released?

Let It Be (which was actually recorded before Abbey Road.)

Really?

Yes, really.

We use "the last" when we are thinking about the most recent thing in the past.
We are not focusing on what's new and what's happening now. Notice that we say it was the last because we are thinking about the past.

When was the latest time you went to France?
When was the last time you went to France?

'Next' and 'last' in time clauses

In English we use 'next' and 'last' in time clauses with no article (without "the") to talk about the time after this and the time before this.

Last week, I went to Bulgaria, this week I'm staying in Barcelona and next week, I'm going to Bournemouth.
Next month, I'm starting a course in logic and next year, I'm hoping to go to university.

You can use "next time" when you want to refer to the next scheduled event but we never use "next day" without an article.

Next day we can talk about your favourite David Bowie albums.

Next time we can talk about your favourite David Bowie albums.

Which leaves us with one question:

Why is David Bowie's latest album called "The Next Day"?

You can use "the next day", if there is a clear sequence of days.

The first day we went to the beach; the next day we played crazy golf, the next day it rained, so we went down into a cave to see the stalactites, and the last day, we went to the beach again. There wasn't much else to do.

In the David Bowie song, it sounds like his holiday was even worse:

"Here I am, not quite dying
My body left to rot in a hollow tree
Its branches throwing shadows
On the gallows for me
And the next day
And the next
And another day"